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In the second half of 20^th century silver fir regeneration has been observed throughout all of the Europe, including the Czech Republic. The Bohemian Forest - Šumava Mts. is one of the regions where the silver fir percentage in forest stands is supposed to be increased from the present 2% to nearly 12%. During the period 2006-2007, in the Czech part of the Bohemian Forest, samples of silver fir were taken mainly in the upper altitudinal limit of silver fir occurrence. In the present paper the results of performed analyses are compared with similar surveys conducted in the other European regions. Samples from the Bohemian Forest, in contrast to other results, differ in higher phosphorus content and lower contents of calcium and manganese. Nitrogen content is slightly higher. Our values for the other elements (magnesium, potassium, zinc, sulphur) are comparable to those reported in Poland and Slovakia. In Germany, aside from the above mentioned differences, higher magnesium content was also found within the locality sampled.

This paper deals with the measurement and evaluation of pedunculate and sessile oaks on five provenance trial plots located in the forest regions Západočeská pahorkatina, Jihočeská pánev, Hornomoravský úval, Dolnomoravský úval, Bílé Karpaty and Vizovické vrchy at the age of 20 years. Height and diameter growth were measured and analysed and the quality of tree stems was recorded. Sampled seeds originated from certified stands for seed production located in the Hercynian and Carpathian regions of the Czech Republic. Differences between the two species result from their ecological requirements. A comparison of the two species indicates that pedunculate oak at young age grows better than sessile oak in its typical site conditions. Sessile oak grows relatively worse on the plots situated in floodplain site conditions because it does not tolerate the high levels of groundwater. But the differences were not statistically significant. Significant differences in growth parameters were confirmed within each species among plots and provenances. Large differences in stem shape quality were also recorded already in the early growth phase. In some provenances straight stems were present in up to 56% of the individuals, however, in others straight stems did not appear at all. The total results showed that some pedunculate and sessile oak provenances are more adaptable to site conditions and they suffer lower losses while achieving very good growth.

Beechnuts from three Fagus sylvatica lots were dried at 20°C to 5-6% or 8-9% (fresh weight basis) moisture content and stored at -7°C or -22°C for 3.5 or 4.5 years in sealed polyethylene bags containing air and routinely used for the long-term storage of beechnuts or vacuumed (de-aerated) polyethylene bags with air removed before sealing. The germination and viability (tetrazolium test) of beechnuts were determined according to the Czech Technical Rules (1997) once a year during storage. The results were subjected to factorial ANOVA and the means were compared using the Scheffe test at P > 0.05. Compared to beechnuts dried to an 8-9% moisture content a significant decrease in both germination and viability occurred in beechnuts dried to a 5-6% moisture content regardless of how long the beechnuts were stored. However, the effects of the other treatments (type of storage bag, storage temperature) were not significant.

Plantation of spruce in clusters (small collectives with 20-30 individuals with dense spacing) was realized on a small clear-cut and under the forest stand near the timber line in the Krkonoše Mts. in 1993. Gaps among the collectives were planted with dwarf pine and rowan. The height of trees aged 16 years occurring in centres of the small collectives is greater than trees growing on their edges. Lower height growth of underplantings is affected more by the stand shelter than by the position of individuals within collectives. Health status of plantations is comparable on both plots. Tree samples (spruce, dwarf pine) from the underplanting had lower weight and different biomass distribution than samples from clear-cut, samples with different positions in the collectives on clear-cut also differed. Original stand succeeded in keeping its favourable health condition in spite of the occurrence of individually dying trees.

ABSTRACT: This paper deals with a specific type of homogeneous beechwood called Fageta paupera. The aim is to acquire information about the heterogeneity of soil environment. As a material we used 20 research plots of semi-natural European beech stands, where the sampling of soil profile and the observation of floristic conditions were realized. Laboratory assessment of soil samples was focused on physicochemical and chemical properties of soil: pH/CaCl₂, K⁺, Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺, CEC (T, S, V), C_ox, N_t, C/N, C-FA, C-HA, C-CHL, C-HA/FA. Data processing was done with the aim to discover a variability of soils, observing soil genetic horizons individually (H, A, B, C). Research plots were divided into biotopes with the cover of understory vegetation < 15% and > 15% (in accordance with the definition of Fageta paupera) and the variability of soil properties in each horizon for the two above-mentioned biotopes and furthermore for all plots together was investigated. Results show the highest variability of soil properties in the biotope of Fageta paupera, especially in its holorganic (H) and organomineral (A) horizons. Furthermore, regression analysis showed the strongest dependence of the variability of soil properties in the biotope of Fageta paupera.

Cutting down 20- to 30-years-old trees of blue spruce (Picea pungens Engelm.) (October, May) and cross-cutting them to sections of different volume (0.5-75 dm3) under conditions of half-shade × open area resulted in a potential food offer for cambiophages. Ips amitinus (Eichh.) and Pityogenes chalcographus (L.) reached the higher frequency of occurrence on sections placed in the open area than in half-shade and on stems felled in the autumn season than in the spring season. Dryocoetes autographus (Ratz.) was markedly profiled on sections in half-shade with the gradual desiccation of phloem. P. chalcographus preferring open areas occurred on branches being accompanied by Cryphalus abietis (Ratz.), which attacked branches located in half-shade. On stems of sections from both autumn and spring felling, one generation of I. amitinus developed, however, on autumn sections, the 2^nd generation developed unsuccessfully on the original nutritive material. P. chalcographus completed the development of one generation on stems and branches from autumn felling. On the spring material, the invasion was delayed and a part of wintering larvae did not complete their development. Logging residues of P. pungens were available for the development of I. amitinus and P. chalcographus during one growing season only.

The main task of the study was to investigate the growth conditions of silver fir natural regeneration in the Karkonosze Mts. (Poland). The paper examines the quantity and quality of light reaching the forest floor in stands of different canopies. The aim of the study was also to define the optimal site conditions for silver fir planting under stand canopy. Data on the natural regeneration and stand structure of each investigated stand were collected on circular plots in a grid of 15 × 15 m in 1999 and 2000. Biometric measurements of fir plants planted under various stand canopies were done three times (May 1999, autumn 2000 and 2001). It was found that the fir was not a dominant tree in all size classes from seedlings to saplings. Seedlings (both phases) of spruce, beech, sycamore and rowan occurred in all studied stands. The optimal conditions for fir development were found under larch canopy. That was demonstrated by the highest increment of height, diameter and offshoots. The worst conditions for fir growth were under beech and spruce canopy, which was indicated by the lowest diameter and height. The highest PAR was recorded under pine canopy, whereas the lowest one under beech canopy. Beech stand induced a lower R:FR ratio than the other tree species both on sunny and cloudy days. The highest R:FR ratio was found under the canopy of larch and pine stands.

Our study aimed to determine morphometric data for wild boar (Sus scrofa) in various areas of the Czech Republic and the potential influence of environment on its body measurements. Three localities with varying agricultural systems and overall landscape structure were selected. Hunted boars were measured for height at the withers, body length, ear length, metatarsal length and weight (depending on the circumstances, either dressed with head, without head, or undressed). We also determined the age of the hunted boars according to teeth development. During 2003-2007, a total 654 boars were examined in various age categories. Body development was similar in all areas and without statistically significant differences until the age of 6-7 months. From 8 months, statistically significant differences in body proportions occur across all localities. It is just at that time that carrying capacities change in the selected localities. The results show that morphometric differences among boars of the same age are influenced by external environmental conditions in which the boars live.

A few individuals of Grayish oak have been observed in the Low Murgia Plateau, Puglia Region. This is the first time that Quercus pedunculiflora C. Koch has been found in Italy. The territory is dominated by olive trees, where spontaneous vegetation occurs only in residual patches in particular along an important old dry erosion stream, Lama Lamasinata. Individuals of Grayish oak are located along a rural road and in a closed abandoned park which is in the vicinity of Lama Lamasinata, near Balsignano, one of the most important archaeological sites of the Low Murgia Plateau. In the area other deciduous oaks such as Italian pubescent oak, the most common spontaneous oak in the western district of the Murgia Plateau, and Hungarian oak, which is very rare in the Low Murgia Plateau, have been observed.

The paper deals with historical development of floodplain forests in the area of Vrapač National Nature Reserve in the floodplain of the Morava River (Protected Landscape Area Litovelské Pomoraví, Czech Republic). The aim of this paper is to contribute to a better understanding of the anthropogenic influences that have over centuries led to the present state of floodplain forests in the study area. Thus, it will be possible to define more efficiently the management plan of this floodplain forest ecosystem.

In an Island of the Netherlands, Pine (Pinus nigra) was planted to stabilize the dunes and to protect the arable lands from the blowing sand. This research was conducted to understand the most important environmental factors responsible for a vegetation change in the Pine plantation and effect of this change on the rare orchid population: Goodyera repens and Listera cordata. Vegetation sampling was carried out according to the Braun-Blanquet phytosociologic method within the three sites of this Island. Twinspan analysis confirmed the definition of three site types and redundancy analysis showed a significant difference between the pure Pine stands and the plots with regeneration. The results revealed that the most significant explanatory variables were litter cover, broadleaved tree cover, and shrub cover indicating the vegetation change under the Pine plantation. The abundance of Goodyera repens is strongly associated with the Pine forest and negatively related to broadleaved cover. Listera cordata could apparently cope with vegetation change. Controlling the herbaceous layer in the Pine plantation can promote the orchid population but on the contrary, promoting the natural regeneration of broadleaved species might endanger them.

The maps of altitude, geology, vegetation cover and land use were prepared and classified as the main criteria to locate soil and water conservation programs. Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) was used to determine the relative priorities of these criteria by pairwise comparison. All the thematic maps were then integrated using the overlay process in Geographical Information System (GIS) and the final map of soil erosion risk was produced. Results indicated that vegetation cover was given the highest weight (0.494). The geology was assigned the second highest weight (0.313), as the main cause of initiation of the erosion of erodible lands. Land-use change has a local influence on soil erosion, so it was assigned the third weight (0.151). Altitude is a low-impact variable for predicting the water and soil conservation areas.

: The study evaluates production parameters (height, diameter at breast height, volume) of Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii [Mirb.] Franco) at mesotrophic sites of the Křtiny Training Forest Enterprise in mature stands. In total, 29 mixed stands were assessed with the registered proportion of Douglas fir at an age of 85 to 136 years. Comparing the 10 largest Douglas firs with the 10 largest spruces or larches higher, and as a rule markedly higher, production potential of introduced Douglas fir was found in all assessed stands. There were also groups of trees where the volume of Douglas fir was twice to 3 times higher than the volume of spruce or larch (see Tabs. 5 to 10). For example, in stand 177B11, the mean volume of 9.12 m³ was recorded in the 10 largest Douglas fir trees but the volume of spruce reached only 3.17 m³ and the volume of larch was 3.70 m³. Differences in mensurational parameters of Douglas fir found on the one hand and of Norway spruce (Picea abies [L.] Karst.) or European larch (Larix decidua Mill.) on the other hand compared by ANOVA tests were statistically highly significant. Annual ring analyses have shown that at present the volume increment of particular Douglas fir trees ranges from 0.12 to 0.16 m³ per year in mature stands (i.e. about 1.5 m³ every 10 years).

The Lusatian lignite-mining district (Eastern Germany) is characterized by a high share of marginal post-mining areas. At these sites, crop yield is generally low, and hence, conventional land use systems often fail in terms of reliable and efficient crop production. In this paper the attempt is made to evaluate the production of woody biomass for bioenergy in short rotation coppices (SRC) and alley cropping systems (ACS) with black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia L.) and lucerne (Medicago sativa L.) from the aspect of possible ecological and economic benefits compared to the conventional agricultural recultivation practice. The results show that, due to both high establishment and harvesting costs and comparatively low prices of energy wood, land use systems such as SRC or ACS are currently hardly profitable compared to conventional agriculture. However, the cultivation of black locust resulted in a higher humus accumulation and in a lower harvest-related nutrient export than the cultivation of lucerne as a typical recultivation crop in this region. Therefore, it can be concluded that for an improvement of soil fertility woody biomass production is more beneficial than the conventional agricultural recultivation practice.

Randomized Branch Sampling (RBS) is a multistage sampling procedure using natural branching in order to select samples for the estimation of tree characteristics. The existing variants of the RBS method use unequal selection probabilities based on an appropriate auxiliary variable, and selection with or without replacement. In the present study, the effects of the choice of the auxiliary variable, of the deletion of segments, and of the stratification of the tree crown on the sampling error were analyzed. In the analysis, trees of three species with complete crown data were used: Norway spruce (Picea abies [L.] Karst.), European mountain ash (Sorbus aucuparia L.) and Monterey pine (Pinus radiata D. Don). The results clearly indicate that the choice of the auxiliary variable affects both the precision of the estimate and the distribution of the samples within the crown. The smallest variances were achieved with the diameter of the segments to the power of 2.0 (Norway spruce) up to 2.55 (European mountain ash) as an auxiliary variable. Deletion of great sized segments yielded higher precision in almost all cases. Stratification of the crown was not generally successful in terms of a reduction of sampling errors. Only in combination with deletion of stem segments, a clear improvement in the precision of the estimate could be observed, depending on species, tree, target variable, and definition and number of strata on the tree. For the trees divided into two strata, the decrease in the coefficient of variation of the estimate lies between 10% (European mountain ash) and 80% (old pine) compared with that for unstratified trees. For three strata, the decrease varied between 50% (European mountain ash) and 85% (old pine).

The study was aimed to assess the integral value that determines wood properties - wood density at a moisture content of 0% and 12%. The wood density was researched in a sample tree with the presence of reaction compression wood. The density was determined for individual zones (CW, OW, SWL and SWR). The zone where compression wood (CW) is present has a higher density than the remaining zones. On the basis of the acquired data, 3D models were created for individual zones; they describe the variability of wood density along the stem radius and stem height. The influence of the radius seems to be a statistically highly significant factor. The wood density is significantly higher in samples with the presence of compression wood. When the proportion of compression wood in the sample was 80%, the wood density was 1.5 times higher compared to wood without compression wood.

This research deals with productivity and cost of rock disintegration and side casting of materials with the use of a hydraulic hammer mounted on a PC 220 Komatsu crawler excavator, which is used on rocky slopes of Hyrcanian forests of Iran. A continuing time study was applied during the road construction. To estimate the volume of rock disintegration, the average end area equation was used. The increasing cut-slope height decreased productivity. The productivity of hydraulic hammer averaged at 5.5 m³.h^-1 for the mean work volume of 5.07 m³.m^-1. The unit cost of the system was 7.7 €.m^-3. From the economic point of view a new machine with multipurpose system could be recommended for forest road construction operations in rocky areas.

Earlier breeders used phenotypic selection based on morphological characteristics to improve tree varieties. These selections often take many cycles of breeding and backcrossing in order to place desired characteristics. But today the knowledge has paved the way for a much deeper understanding of the mechanics of cell biology and the hereditary process itself. Breeders are presented with numerous possibilities of altering the behaviour of existing varieties. Linkage between molecular markers can be translated to genetic linkage maps, which have become an important tool in plant genetics. They may choose to use marker-assisted approaches in order to facilitate the selection of favourable combinations of genes that occur naturally within a tree species.

Contents of free polyamines (putrescine, spermidine and spermine) were determined in different developmental stages of Norway spruce (Picea abies [L.] Karst.) somatic embryos by means of HPLC. Determinations were performed embryogenic tissue after 4 weeks of the growth on proliferation medium, after 2 and 5 weeks of the culturing on maturation medium, and 2 weeks after desiccation. Maturation of somatic embryos (after 5 weeks) was accompanied by increase of concentrations of putrescine (2.3 times) and spermidine (3.2 times). In comparison with above mentioned polyamines, spermine concentrations were significantly lower (4.3 times). Two weeks after desiccation, the concentrations of putrescine decreased 5.4 times and spermidine 2.2 times in comparison with mature embryos. To improve the efficiency of somatic embryogenesis of less responsive genotypes, the supplementation of growth media by polyamines is discussed.

This paper presents the results of an analysis of the changes in the fragmentation and ecological stability of the floodplain forest geobiocoenoses in the Protected Landscape Area Litovelské Pomoraví, Czech Republic. Using GIS methods, it was determined that the fragmentation within the study area had increased slightly and the ecological stability of the landscape had decreased slightly between the years 1938 and 2006, although the latter remained on a fairly high level. The data reflect the anthropogenic conditionality of the floodplain forest ecosystem and show that an anthropogenically conditioned geobiocoenosis may attain a relatively high level of ecological stability, this being particularly characteristic of floodplain forest geobiocoenoses in Central Europe. The results of the study contribute to the documents that will be used in drawing up a management plan for the locality important at the European level which is a part of the Natura 2000 system.

The life cycle operation phase of John Deere 1490D energy wood harvester from the aspect of energy audit and environmentally negative influence caused by emissions were evaluated. Energy audit quantifies energy used in the form of fuels and oils as well as energy expended for manufacture, transport and distribution of these fuels and oils. Emissions produced by operation are determined according to the consumption of fuels and oils based on emission factors. We also made a comparison of the general calculation of costs based on data provided by the manufacturer with costs ascertained in real operating conditions. The costs are divided into purchase, operating and other costs. Total costs are subsequently converted into unit costs according to the assumed productivity of the machine, its estimated lifetime, and the mean real throughput of the machine. The machine throughput, and thus also its operating economics, is greatly dependent on the character of the processed material, its stem volume, moisture, way of dendromass preparation, and operator's skills. Energy use was calculated at 74.4 MJ.FU^-1 (functional unit) related to fuel consumption and 13.4 MJ.FU^-1 related to the consumption of oils. The total energy use of the life cycle operation phase of the slash bundler was determined as 87.8 MJ per each bundle produced. The real productivity of the machine in the given operating conditions was several times lower than the productivity indicated by the manufacturer.

Fraser fir (Abies fraseri) Christmas tree plantations in North Carolina are infested by root rot caused by Phytophthora cinnamomi. This disease kills almost 100% of Fraser fir material and leaves the soil permanently infested. Control crossings of Mediterranean fir hybrids Abies cilicica × Abies cephalonica with Abies fraseri were performed to ensure possibly resistant hybrid material of desired Christmas tree parameters. Pollen of various clones of A. fraseri was shipped to the Czech Republic by NCSU. Control pollinations were performed in April/May 2010 and 2011 in our hybridization seed orchards. Female strobili were isolated in the period of their highest receptibility. Cones were collected during September. Cones were dried and completely disintegrated. Basic parameters of cones and seeds were assessed for each seed lot. Seed samples of the individual seed lots were X-rayed for assessment of the final share of full seeds. In 2010, the most successful combination CZ2 × NC81 brought 7% of viable seeds. In 2011 the most successful combination was CZ2 × NC26 with 18% of viable seeds.

This article describes the problem of forest reclamation of settling basins after industrial processing of manganese ore and pyritic shale at the age of 20-30 years. Soil properties of anthropogenic soil (overlaid layers, deposited sediments), nutrition state of assimilation organs, vitality of aboveground organs of tree species were investigated by instant visual evaluation using recommended macromorphological criteria and architecture of the Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) root system.

Somatic embryogenesis is conveniently utilized for the preparation of Norway spruce (Picea abies [L.] Karst.) transgenic clones by means of Agrobacterium. The establishment of successful transformation protocol requires to determine the tolerance of growing embryogenic tissue to antibiotics in culture and selective media. In 5 Norway spruce lines (genotypes) differences in the tolerance of embryogenic tissues to penicillin antibiotics (amoxicillin, carbenicillin, and ticarcillin), carbapenem antibiotic (meropenem) used for the Agrobacterium growth prevention, and aminoglycoside antibiotic (kanamycin) used in selective media were determined. Of the penicillin derivatives, amoxicillin was optimally tolerated in all lines and, in addition, its highest concentration accelerated growth in more rapidly growing lines. Ticarcillin was similarly tolerated but no growth acceleration was observed in any line. As regards carbenicillin, only the lowest concentration was observed to be well tolerated by all lines whereas all concentrations of meropenem were well tolerated in all lines except for slowly growing line 28, the growth of which was retarded by the concentration of 20 mg/l. The aminoglycoside antibiotic kanamycin was well tolerated by the embryonic tissue of all lines in the concentration of 10 mg/l and less in the concentration of 25 mg/l. The concentrations of 50 mg/l and 100 mg/l appeared as intolerable in all lines. Toxicity of kanamycin manifested at first in the browning and later in the growth cessation of embryogenic tissue.

The purpose of the study was to assess, in respect of selected physical properties, the reclamation of the northern slope of the outside spoil bank of the Belchatów brown coal mine by reforestation carried out 20 years ago. Investigations were carried out on 55 permanent research plots. This study confirmed the efficiency of reclamation of strip-mine spoils, and its results allowed to point out the properties of initial soils as the most useful characteristics for the assessment of land reclamation by reforestation.

The use of skidding machinery in logging operations causes destructive effects especially on soil but has many advantages such as extracting long and heavy logs, optimum use of useful logging time and absence of defect in wood production quality and thus an increase in the added value of wood. In this research compartment 40 of the second district of Nav-Asalem in northern Iran at an altitude of 1,050-1,450 m above sea level was chosen in order to assess the amount of displaced soil volume and depth of ruts due to the traffic of Timber Jack 450C rubber wheeled skidder along the skid trail. Therefore, the correlations between two independent variables, longitudinal slope and soil texture, with two dependent variables, displaced soil volume and average depth of rut, along the skid trail were examined after 20 passes of skidder machinery. The results of this research showed a significant difference between the longitudinal slope increase of skid trail and the amount of soil volume displaced (P < 0.001). However, there was no significant correlation between the mean rut depth and different classification of longitudinal slope along the skid trail. The highest measured rut depth was 22 cm and occurred in the slope class of more than 25%. There was no significant correlation between the amount of displaced soil volume and rut depth with changes in soil texture along the skid trail.

In 1997, long-term thinning experiment Všeteč in Southern Bohemia was established in the young 19-year-old mixed beech and spruce stand. Three variants (0.10 ha each) were investigated: 1 - control unthinned plot (only salvage cut was done), 2 - plot with positive selection from above and 3 - plot with negative selection from below. The aim of this paper is to evaluate the first results from the eleven-year investigation (at the age of 19-29 years) focused on the effect of thinning on growth, species composition, litter-fall and humus in young mixed stands in this experiment. Thinning (both variants) resulted in decreased salvage cut (dead, broken and uprooted trees). Continual diminishing of spruce portion (started quickly after dry season in 2003 on control unthinned plot) was slow or soft on both thinned plots. Annual litter-fall in experimental young spruce and beech mixed stands at the age of 27-29 years varied from 4.6 to 5.5 thousand kg/ha and dry biomass of humus horizons L, F and H represented altogether approximately 91 and 128 thousand kg/ha on plots 3 and 1, respectively (plot 2 was omitted from this part of investigation).

The study deals with the influence of the structure, texture and dynamics of a spruce-beech primeval forest on the bird community in Skalná Alpa National Nature Reserve in the Veľká Fatra Mts. (West Carpathians, Slovakia) in the years 1982-2002. The abundance of Norway spruce (Picea excelsa Lam.) was highest both in the optimum and decomposition stage. In the growth stage the number of Norway spruce (Picea excelsa Lam.) trees was quite low. The texture of spruce-beech virgin forest was very variable. Percentage ratios of individual stages on the area of 42.16 ha were as follows: growth stage 38.3%, optimum stage 20.1% and decomposition stage 41.6%. Altogether 46 bird species were represented in the bird community during the spring season. Mean total density was 85.8 ind/10 ha. The bird community consisted of 52 species in the summer season, 45 in the autumn migration season, 34 in the winter season, and of 47 in the spring migration season. The highest density was found in the bird community during the autumn migration season (109.8 ind/10 ha), the lowest in the winter season (24.6 ind/10 ha). During the spring migration season, both the spectrum of bird species and total density of bird community increased by the number of migratory species that came back from winter habitats.

In this study, the effects of slope and traffic intensity on soil compaction, rutting and forest floor removal was evaluated on a skid trail in the natural forest of north of Iran. Combination of two levels of slope < 20% (SC1) and > 20% (SC2) and three levels of traffic (one, five and nine traffics) were studied. Treatment plots, with three replications, were established on the skid trail prior to skidding. The results of this study showed that all bulk densities were considerably higher in SC2 than in SC1 and average soil bulk densities were measured from 1.07 (g∙cm^-3) to 1.23 (g∙cm^-3) on skid trail and 0.91 (g∙cm^-3) in undisturbed areas. With the increment of traffic, soil compaction increased but there was no significant difference among the three levels of traffic frequency in SC1 whereas it was significant between one and five cycles in SC2. Greatest rut depth was measured as 12 cm at nine traffics in SC2, although increase of traffic density caused deeper rut depth at all slope treatments, but it was higher at the SC2 in comparison to SC1. Litter mass decreased considerably on the skid trail with the increasing in slope and traffic. No important difference has been detected between SC1 and SC2 in terms of Litter mass removal. These results provide clear evidence that soil disturbance on steep trail is intensified.

The aim of the study was to assess terrestrial ecosystem development (mainly vegetation and soil characteristics) in the area of a sand mine cast (located in southern Poland) that has been either reclaimed or left for natural succession. A total of 20 sites in a chronosequence of 5, 17, 20 and 25 years were set up in two site categories: reclaimed and non-reclaimed sites. Selected properties of initial soils and features of vegetation were measured and they included carbon accumulation in soil; biomass and diversity of communities were also estimated. Next, based on carbon accumulation, the energy trapped in ecosystem components was estimated. Although the results of plant community investigation did not show the same distinct differences between site categories, the case study suggests that reclamation significantly accelerates ecosystem development. In comparison with spontaneous succession, the complete forest reclamation was found to increase the amount of carbon accumulation, thickness of humus horizon, and energy trapped in soil organic carbon and plant biomass in the developing ecosystem 2-3 times and nitrogen accumulation 5 times.