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The success of forest and agricultural plant establishment program mainly depends on the quality of reproductive material. The study intends to offer engineers and farm owners a solution for small-size seed improvement before sowing. The effect of low-intensity coherent light on the seeds of various crops is theoretically and empirically hypothesized. The seedlots of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) and sugar beet (Beta vulgaris L.) of Russian diploid hybrid RMS-127 were germinated in a controlled environment. The germinants were produced from six seed fractions, previously irradiated with 1.274 W.m^-2 at the 632.8 nm wavelength with 1, 2, 3, 5, 10, 15 min exposure to a standard laser system, plus untreated control. Pine germinants were measured on day 15, beetroot on day 10 after germination. An increase in exposure time reduced Scots pine germination energy and capacity, while for sugar beet the results were not conclusive. On the contrary, increasing the exposure time had a positive effect on both the height and biomass growth of both Scots pine and sugar beet germinants. The 10-min exposure time resulted in maximum values for sugar beet height and biomass and Scots pine height, while the 15-min exposure time produced maximum Scots pine biomass.

This study was embarked upon to assess forest guards' Knowledge, Attitude and Practice (KAP) behavioural change sequences in Nigeria lowland forest reserves using a structural equation modelling approach. Two research questions were raised and corresponding hypotheses were tested. From the data analysed, it was revealed that both knowledge and attitude variables significantly predicted the behaviour of the forest guards' towards the management of the forest and its resources. Although the attitude variable on its own did not significantly predict the forest guards' behaviours (t = 1.401, P > 0.05), it can be stated that the knowledge of the forest guards towards the forest is a better predictor to their environmental behaviours and their behavioural change sequence (AKP) is inclined towards developing affinity to the forest. Hence seminar and symposiums should be organized for all forest guards with the objectives of having better efforts and persistence, preparation for action, better visualization of success, reduce stressors, and fewer intrusive negative thoughts in managing the forest and its resources. This will help boost their affinity to the forest and self-efficacy as the study revealed that the Attitude-Knowledge-Practice (AKP) sequence explains better the behaviour of the forest guards in protecting the forest reserves.

Changbai Mountain Natural Reserve (1,985 km² and 2,734 m a.s.l.) of Northeast China is a typical ecosystem representing the temperate biosphere. The vegetation is vertically divided into 4 dominant zones: broadleaved Korean pine forest (annual temperature 2.32°C, annual precipitation 703.62 mm), dark coniferous forest (annual temperature -1.78°C, annual precipitation 933.67 mm), Erman's birch forest (annual temperature -2.80°C, annual precipitation 1,002.09 mm) and Alpine tundra (annual temperature -3.82°C, annual precipitation 1,075.53 mm). Studies of soil carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) mineralization have attracted wide attention in the context of global climate change. Based on the data of a 42-day laboratory incubation experiment, this paper investigated the relationship between soil moisture and mineralization of C and N in soils with different vegetation types on the northern slope of the Natural Reserve Zone of Changbai Mountain. The elevation influence on soil C and N mineralization was also discussed. The results indicated that for the given vegetation type of Changbai Mountain the C and N mineralization rate, potential mineralizable C (C0) and potential rate of initial C mineralization (C₀k) all increased as the soil moisture rose. The elevation or vegetation type partially affected the soil C and N mineralization but without a clear pattern. The moisture-elevation interaction significantly affected soil C and NO₃^--N mineralization, but the effect on NH₄⁺-N mineralization was not significant. The complex mechanism of their impact on the soil C and N mineralization of Changbai Mountain remains to be studied further based on data of field measurements in the future.

The Alpine ecosystem is very sensitive to climatic changes, which have an influence on glaciers, snow, vegetation and soils. The aim of this review is to illustrate the effects of global change on the Alpine soil ecosystem, which is an optimal marker to record them. The manuscript enhances our understanding of the global change effect on the Alpine environment: on morphology, on ice, on vegetation and points out how the cycles of soil nutrients equilibrium have been changed with a direct effect on soils that support plant species. The changes in cryosphere, glacier reduction and periglacial environment as glaciers retreat, decrease in the snow cover extent and earlier snowmelt, determine an effect on soils (on the structure, organic matter and humus forms, soil processes and soil types) from the top of the Alpine horizon to the bottom. The processes induced by climate change (such as erosion and tree line shifting) have a direct effect on water balance that can be observed on soil profile characters with an effect on upward migration, change in phenology, extensive losses of species. The equilibrium of the biogeochemical cycles has been changed and this has a direct effect on soils that support plant species.

Assessment of carbon storage build-up in tree stems is a difficult task due to the lack of information on their carbon sequestration potential and allocation in different components. Similarly, high cost and complex methodology for accurate belowground biomass estimation make it in particular problematic. To this end, 18 Persian oak (Quercus brantii Lindley) trees from two growth forms in western Iran were destructively sampled to develop biomass and carbon mass prediction. Sampling covered a range of ages (40-145-year-old), sizes (DBH 7-38 cm) and mean crown diameter (1.9-8.55 m). We examined biomass proportion and carbon sequestration quantity at individual tree and growth form levels, which were: coppice and high forest. One-way ANOVA was used to test the significant differences in carbon concentration, biomass and carbon pools between the components of the two growth forms. Results showed that there was a difference in average biomass and carbon sequestration of trees from the two growth forms. The biomass distribution pattern was similar in the two growth forms. Amounts of stored biomass in trunk, stump, branch, twig and foliage were 24.79, 6.01, 63.82, 2.53 and 2.93% of aboveground components for high forest and 16.4, 10.12, 65.83, 4.23 and 3.46% for corresponding coppice trees. The average biomass of the root-shoot ratio in high-forest and coppice trees was determined 0.72 and 0.88, respectively. A general decline in these proportions was detected as the size of trees increased. We recommend a root-shoot ratio of 0.80 to be adopted for Persian oak.

Industrial air pollution, particularly cement dust, affects the leaf water status and resource utilisation and finally decreases primary production. Evaluating the relative water content (RWC), leaf mass per unit area (LMA), specific leaf area (SLA), and leaf water per unit area (LWA) helps selecting more tolerant species for dusty polluted areas. In this study, we compare two species of Quercus castaneifolia C.A.Mey and Carpinus betulus L. in a polluted site (PL) around a cement factory, and a unpolluted site (UPL) in Mazandaran province, Northern Iran. Ten individual trees of each species were tagged at each site, and twenty fully developed leaves were collected for further analysis and calculation. Based on the results, RWC and LWA were significantly lower in the PL site (61.0% and 0.0075 g·cm^–2, respectively) compared to the UPL site (71.1% and 0.0114 g·cm^–2, respectively) for Q. castaneifolia. However, no significant differences were observed in selected variables between PL and UPL sites for C. betulus. Among the studied variables, SLA was significantly higher in C. betulus (259.1 cm²·g^–1) compared to Q. castaneifolia (189.8 cm²·g^–1). Our results indicated that C. betulus responds better to dust pollution in terms of leaf water variables.

Extensive microbiological research was carried out in Tbilisi (capital of Georgia) and its surroundings to determine the causes of massive disease and dieback of urban coniferous plantations. The biological material was picked up in June-July 2020 from trees with various degrees of the disease in 42 different localities. 247 conifers (15 species) were examined microbiologically. 1 169 samples of microscopic fungi were isolated. Based on cultural-morphological and molecular-genetic (PCR) studies, 34 strains were identified to the species level, 17 to the genus level, and 1 strain to the family level. Ascomycota were represented by 15 families and 33 species, Basidiomycota by 1 family and 2 species and Zygomycota by 2 families and 2 species. Among the isolated strains, 9 species were clearly dominant and found in all studied coniferous species: Alternaria alternata (Fr.) Keissl, Sphaeropsis sapinea (Fr.) Dyko & B. Button, Epicoccum nigrum Link., Sordaria lappae Potebnia, Curvularia spp., Dothiorella spp, Nothophoma quercina (Sydow & P. Sydow) Q. Chen & L. Cai, Phoma odoratissimi Q. Chen, Didymella aliena (Fries) Q. Chen & L. Cai. It may be supposed that massive activation of pathogenic fungi is the result of weakening of plant immunity on the background of increasing abiotic stresses in Tbilisi over the years; which led to an imbalance between latent pathogens and host plants and eventually to the depressing consequences of trees dieback.

Forest cover plays an important role in terms of biodiversity and the environment. The Beni Salah national forest in its part which is located in the Guelma province in the extreme northeast of Algeria is an illustrative example where forest fires represent the chronic phenomenon which weighs heavily on this forest. The present study comes after a forest fire that occurred in 2021, when 3 000 ha of this forest were ravaged by forest fires according to the conservation of forests of Guelma. The main objective of this research is to map the severity of burns and estimate the severely burned area using Sentinel-2 satellite images based on remote sensing indices such as Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), Differenced Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (dNDVI), Normalized Burn Ratio (NBR), Differenced Normalized Burn Ratio (dNBR), Green Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (GNDVI), Differenced Green Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (dGNDVI), Burn Area Index (BAI) and Relativized Burn Ratio (RBR). The result obtained revealed that 28.23% of the study area represents a seriously burned area. The established burn severity map is a real decision-making tool, but it still has certain limitations.

The efficiency of different conservation practices on soil loss from road side slopes is scarcely identified in the Hyrcanian forests of Iran, which could retard the implementation of these management practices. Sediment of 48 plots on the cut slopes and fill slopes of forest roads were collected to explore their responses to soil conservation practices, including straw bale (SB), living hedge (LH), dead hedge (DH), geo-cell (GC), geotextile (GT), and bare soil (BS). Moreover, the efficiency of conservation practices was evaluated to find a cost-effective approach. Sediment traps were installed at the toe of side slopes in the ditch and end of each treated plot. Sediment volume was measured monthly for six months. The results demonstrated that the lowest soil loss occurred in autumn and fill slopes treated with GC (5.05 g·m^–2) and the highest in winter and cut slopes treated with SB (41.81 g·m^–2). In all cases, soil loss from BS (126.74 g·m^–2) was significantly higher than in plots treated with conservation practices. GC performed well under certain circumstances due to two-dimensional protections of contiguous wooden lumbers. Moreover, it was found that in a short time there were not any significant differences between LH (28.78 g·m^–2), DH (36.01 g·m^–2), and GT (30.61 g·m^–2) in soil loss control ability. Regarding implementation and installation costs, GC (USD 16.67 per plot) was the most expensive, while LH (USD 3.33 per plot) was the cheapest. Regarding GC, it is necessary to conduct long-term research to determine economic efficiency, durability, maintenance, and repair costs. Until then, it is possible to use affordable treatments such as LH, which have yielded favourable results in efficiency.

Czech Academy of Agricultural Sciences (CAAS) is a professional and social institution whose basic mission is to influence the scientific level of research activities and education in its field of competence, to take care of its continuous development and to effectively popularize the acquired scientific knowledge. Within the CAAS and its Department of Forestry, the Commission of Forest Economics has been operating for a long time, focusing on forest and wood economics and policy. A total of 11 research directions are defined in the forthcoming Concept of Research, Development and Innovation of the Ministry of Agriculture for the period 2023+, the professional part of which is covered and guaranteed by the CAAS. The following directions are included in forestry and wood processing: "Forestry and related industries" and the direction "Forest and agricultural economics and policy" integrated with agriculture. The paper briefly describes the scientific focus of forest and wood economics and policy in this context and especially the activities of the Commission of Forest Economics of the Department of Forestry of the CAAS. In the temporal and factual context, it mentions the published monograph "Czech Academy of Agricultural Sciences and a Quarter-Century of the Commission of Forest Economics".

Analyses of root mycorrhizal samples and monitoring of fruiting bodies of macromycetes from Norway spruce stands at mountain and foothill localities in the Krkonoše and Orlické Mts. provided several data series allowing to assess and compare (albeit somewhat preliminarily) mycorrhizal conditions and macromycete incidence related to stand ages and location conditions. The overall mycorrhizal conditions in young (10 years old) and older (80 years old) stands on formerly agricultural soils are comparable to those in 80- and 90-year-old forests growing on standard forest soils, but young spruce stands in the Orlické Mts. replanted on forest soils do not surprisingly show any favourable mycorrhizal characteristics. The research documents a marked diversity of macromycete species composition in mountain spruce stands compared to foothill spruce stands on former agricultural soils. While in the younger mountain spruce stands of the Orlické Mts. the expansion of macromycete species composition began to develop in a similar fashion to that in the Krkonoše Mts., the comparison of older (80-year-old) stands on formerly agricultural soils in the Orlické Mts. foothills and Krkonoše Mts. implies that the macromycete species composition developed quite differently but with a similar success.

The paper presents the results of a study on the impact of forest stand structure and development in 1998 to 2018 on the occurrence of dog's tooth violets (Erythronium dens-canis L.) in the Medník National Nature Monument, Czech Republic. The research was carried out in mixed European hornbeam and sessile oak stands, herb-rich European beech stands and the Sázava-river Norway spruce ecotype stands. The site and stand characteristics of the following three forest stand types were compared: 1) oak-hornbeam forests, 2) herb-rich beech forests and 3) secondary spruce forests. The results showed that the ratio of sterile and fertile plants was 2.9 to 1. The occurrence of E. dens-canis was higher in older stands with differentiated structure. On the contrary, stands characterized by a higher number of trees and basal area negatively affected the population size of E. dens‑canis. Significantly, the density of E. dens-canis decreased with increasing stand density index (SDI) and increased with increasing diameter differentiation index in relation to tree neighbours (TM_d). During the period of 20 years, the E. dens-canis population increased by 40.4% on permanent research plots, while the highest changes were observed on spruce plots (+92.1%) and the lowest increase was in oak-hornbeam forests (+18.0%). The highest numbers of E. dens-canis plants were found in herb-rich beech forests (1 774 plants.ha^-1), lower numbers occurred in oak-hornbeam forests (784 plants.ha^-1) and minimal in secondary spruce forests (51 plants.ha^-1).

In the paper, the results of the complex cuttings were presented in the secondary hornbeam stands with the aim of regenerating the natural beech stands in the northern regions of Azerbaijan. For this purpose, three complex cutting procedures were carried out with a recurrence at 5 and 10 years in four sites of the secondary hornbeam stands in the northern regions. The experimental plots were characterised with: a stand density of 0.5-0.7, the age of the forest stands of 60-130 years, undergrowth of 12-25 years, a stand volume of 130-200 m3.ha-1, the beech percentage in the composition of stands of 17-28%, hornbeam 62-79% spread over the southern and northern slopes of the mountains. As a result of the complex cuttings, the share of beech trees in the composition of the parent stands increased 2.2-3.0 times. During cutting, the share of beech trees, as a part of undergrowth, increased 3.8-4.3 times. Based on the data, mathematical models were established reflecting the dynamics of the numbers of the undergrowth and the total stand volume of the forest stands depending on the participation percentage of beech trees in the parent stand.

The aim of this study was to determine the suitable conservation treatments to control water erosion from skid trails in ShastKalate forests. Two longitudinal slopes of 20-40% and > 40% were considered as critical slopes for skid trails. Treatments of water diversion ruts, water diversion ruts filled with slash and stones were implemented on each slope. A rubber bar was installed at the end of the slope to convert runoff into collectors. Sampling was done during rainfall events in autumn and winter seasons. Findings indicated that the treatment of water diversion ruts filled with slash was better than the other treatments in the control of sediment and soil loss, especially in the slope class of 20-40%. In the slope class of > 40%, there was not any significant difference between treatments in sediment and soil loss control, but generally water diversion ruts filled with slash and stones were better in soil erosion control than water diversion ruts. In both slope classes, the rainfall intensity of 0.11 mm.h^-1 (2.64 mm in 24 h) was the threshold of soil erosion on skid trails. The control of water erosion of soil on skid trails by the operation of water diversions is a suitable treatment for conserving skid trails.

The main goal of this paper was to evaluate structure dynamics in the fir-beech, old-growth forest Badínsky prales. Measurements were taken on four permanent research plots (0.5 ha each) between 1970 and 2018, typically in ten-year intervals. In order to assess long-term structure dynamics, this study used basic stand characteristics and selected structural indices - the relative density (RD), coefficient of homogeneity (H), and structural complexity index (SCI). Species composition was quantified by the relative importance value (RIV), and a detrended correspondence analysis was carried out for the visualisation of long-term changes. The long-term mean of the stand volume reached 634 ± 99 m3.ha-1, and the mean of the basal area was 36.6 ± 4.0 m2.ha-1. Calculated values of the coefficient of homogeneity (1.46-2.54) were similar to values in other old-growth forests with a comparable tree species composition. An increasing trend in beech RIV values was observed; on the other hand, fir RIV values fell by approximately 20%-25%. In 2018, maximal values of the basal area, stand volume and relative density were recorded. These high values may indicate better growth conditions due to climate change, as well as fewer disturbance events in the last few decades.

Forest gaps remain the optimal forest management practice in modern forestry. Upon all the physical properties of forest gaps, the 'gap size' feature stands out as an essential property. The effect of gap size on tree species composition and diversity of natural regeneration in forest gaps of different sizes was investigated. Eight research forest gaps were selected from the Training Forest School Enterprise, also called Masaryk Forest in Křtiny, a temperate mixed forest in the Czech Republic. By given gap sizes, small (< 700 m²) and large gaps (≥ 700 m²) were defined. Forty-one (41) regeneration microsites (RSs) of 1 m² circular area at 2 m intervals were demarcated within each forest gap. These RSs served as data collection points. From the total of eleven (11) species enumerated, large gaps obtained higher species composition (10) and diversity (Simpson = 0.5 1-D; Shannon = 1.0 H and Pielou's evenness = 0.5 J indices) records, yet, small gaps presented favourable conditions for prolific natural regeneration significantly. Light-adapted species demonstrated no significant difference (P > 0.05) between small and large gaps, however, intermediate and shade-tolerant species were significantly higher (P < 0.05) in small gaps. There were progressive declines in height growth of natural regeneration from 0-20 cm to 21-50 cm and 51+ cm in small and large gaps at R² = 99% and 88%, respectively. The development of herbaceous vegetation in small and large gaps had positive and negative effects on the natural regeneration of Fagus sylvatica and Abies alba species, respectively.

Afforestation is important for the EU forest management strategy. Afforestation of abandoned and marginal arable land is a favourable non-agricultural land use option for climate change mitigation. It may prevent threats of drought or erosion e.g. by affecting the water balance in soil via increased structural stability. The structural stability control in afforested soil is related to i.a. organic matter content, nutrient content, soil reaction, planted tree species prosperity, and amelioration. A four-year field small-plot experiment on afforestation was carried out with Chernozem covered with deciduous (oak), coniferous (pine) or mixed planting, amended with 3 doses (no-application, 0.5 kg×m^-2, and 1.5 kg×m^-2) of alginite. In 2013 and 2016, soil reaction pH_H2O, mean weight diameter (MWD), organic matter content (LOI) and total organic carbon (TOC) were determined and related to the soil structural stability to evaluate the soil precondition to sustain drought twice per vegetation period (spring and autumn). Afforestation significantly improved MWD compared to the field soil between 2013 and 2016 from 1.63 ± 0.04 mm to 1.85 ± 0.05 mm. Tree planting significantly neutralized the soil pH_H2O, mixed planting appeared to improve LOI and TOC. Four-year afforestation led also to higher structural stability, less alkaline pH and deciduous tree-related increase in LOI, which may indicate better soil sustainability to drought.

Biomass nutrient loss and retention were studied at nutrient-poor forest site dominated by Scots pine where two methods of logging residues handling after clear-cutting were compared. The experiment was conducted on nutrient-poor pine-oak forest site on deep sandy-gravel unconsolidated sediments at the altitude of 255 m. There were three treatments established such as (i) control - no harvesting, (ii) whole-tree harvesting with ca. 10% of the slash retained unintentionally on site as processing residues and (iii) stem-only harvesting when small-diameter wood and slash were left on site. The third treatment was found to retain much larger amounts of nutrients in logging residues representing 16% of total above-ground dry mass which accounted for 58% of N, 32% of P, 56% of K, 22% of Ca and 28% of Mg left on site.

Shorea robusta is a valuable tree species which provides good quality timber along with other useful materials like seeds which can be used as a source of starch. Woody plants are difficult to regenerate under in vitro conditions and only some success has been achieved so far. Here we have presented the data for successful in vitro regeneration of S. robusta using nodal explants. Shoot proliferation and rooting were also successfully achieved in subsequent subcultures. The best medium for shoot initiation and proliferation was found to be WPM with 1.0 mg.l^-1 BAP and 0.5 mg.l^-1 NAA and 1.0 mg.l^-1 BAP +0.5 mg.l^-1 NAA, respectively. Likewise for rooting WPM medium with 0.5 mg.l^-1 IBA was found to be the best medium.

Mixed stands are currently supported as effective management options to reduce forest vulnerability to climate change. However, our issues about benefits of mixtures, mechanisms of their incidence and conditions for their effectiveness have yet been only partly clarified. We assessed the crown condition of Norway spruce (Picea abies /L./ Karst) and occurrence of symptoms caused by Armillaria spp. on spruce in a small area in the Drahanská vrchovina Highlands (Czech Republic) in differently mixed stands in 2002 and 2019. We found that although the broadleaf abundance affected the total defoliation of Norway spruce, the effect was unstable in time. The observed effect of altitudinal zones and Norway spruce abundance on the occurrence of symptoms of Armillaria root rot in spruce was also unstable. The drought during recent four years and the implemented forestry measures (salvage and intermediate felling) can be reasons for the relationship instability. We did not identify any statistically significant relationship between tree species diversity (Simpson's Index) and defoliation.

Oriental beech (Fagus orientalis Lipsky) is the most important and valuable industrial wood species in the Hyrcanian forests in the north of Iran mainly used for furniture, veneer, composite, and papermaking industries. The present research was conducted in 2014 aimed at investigating the physicochemical changes of the felled oriental beech stumps over a 2-25 year period, and likewise the feasibility of using the given stumps as an alternative resource for wood pulp production. To do so, the effects of in-situ decay of beech stumps on their physical (wet and dry weights of wood, wet apparent density, and dry apparent density) and chemical (cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, extractives, and total mass of carbohydrates) properties over a 2-25 year felling period were studied. The effects of the given decay period were also studied on the obtained Kraft pulp yield and Kappa number. The results indicate that the wet and dry apparent densities as well as the wet and dry weights of the wood samples decreased over the study period. Also, the results show that approximately 30% of the total mass of carbohydrates was degraded by the ambient fungi over the initial two years of felling, whereas the same property was reduced by 60% after 25 years. The Kraft pulp yields obtained from 2- and 25-year decayed stumps were 22.5% and 8.4%, respectively. The fungal degradation of wood chemical compounds could considerably reduce pulp yield and Kappa number by 62.8% and 74.2%, respectively. The results of a stepwise multivariate regression model evidence that cellulose not only affects the Kappa number but also owns a greater share (vs. lignin) in modelling the Kappa number. This reveals that the intensity of cellulose degradation, due to fungal exposure, is significantly higher than that of the other components of beech stumps in the studied forest area.

The paper presents the maps of ecosystems and 11 dominant woody species of Ambrolauri municipality, Georgia (Europe). Forest cover comprises approximately 68% of the study area, most of which are natural forests. Almost all formations of natural forests, depicted on the Georgian section of the Map of the Natural Vegetation of Europe, are still preserved in the research area. Nearly 40% of the forested land is broadleaf forest. Woody species are better preserved in the upper reaches of rivers, while an anthropogenic transformation is most visible in the Lower Racha Floodplain. A majority of the species discussed in the paper are included in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. The paper also deals with the issues of forest land degradation and threats imposed by invasive species to biodiversity.

The forest sector development in Uruguay has been based on planted forest areas, mainly with eucalyptus and pine. The Parliament passed the Forestry Law in 1987 and since then the sector has been growing rapidly. The objective of the study is to analyse the contribution of the forest sector in the Uruguayan economy, its evolution between 1997 and 2018 and its distribution in recent years. The research used information from the new National Accounts released by the Central Bank of Uruguay, and, in this framework, the forest sector is studied for the main macroeconomic variables and production. The results show that in the period 1997-2018, while the Uruguayan economy grew 2.6% in constant terms, on average, the forest sector grew 7.6% on average, with peaks in 2007-2008 and 2013-2015. In 2016, the forest production was allocated to exports (46.76%), which surpassed intermediate use (43.05%) after initial operations of the second pulp mill in the country. Furthermore, forest exports represented 10.5% of the country's total exports of goods and services, showing an exporter profile.

Control and supervision activities in the field of forest management are a type of activity of state authorities to detect, prevent forest violations. The purpose of this study is to analyse the dynamics and nature of violations in the forest sector on the example and in comparison of such regions of Russia as the Krasnodar territory and the Republic of Bashkortostan. The research methodology is selected taking into account the characteristics of the object under study. With the assistance of employees of the environmental inspectorate, search operations were organized in the areas where the greatest amount of forest damage occurs in the studied regions. The authors concluded that one of the reasons for the existing problems is the lack of interest of the state in the development of this sector of economy. The paper focuses on specific types of forest violations and the problems of their prevention. The authors believe that illegal logging belongs to the most common and socially dangerous forest violations. The article concludes that when adopting new regulations for control and supervisory activities in the field of forest management, the legislator must take into account requirements of administrative reform, regulatory guillotine, and risk-based approach.

According to the data of the Central Statistical Office, there has been an increase in forest cover in Poland from 27.8% to 29.6% over the last 25 years. This increase contributed to an increase in the possibility of wood obtaining and processing for energy purposes. The aim of the study was to analyse the efficiency of a chipping machine manufactured by the American Company Bandit Industries (Bandit 990XP chipper) based on the working day chronometer. The study was carried out in specific conditions related to the place of the chipper application because the machine was used to process the material obtained from standing trees in the framework of park maintenance. As it was shown during the analysed working day, the effective capacity W1 in the work cycle of the Bandit 990XP machine was 9.2 m³∙h^-1 chips. Specific working conditions made it impossible to organize the work smoothly. Ongoing obtaining of the material for chipping from standing trees resulted in low productivity during the exploitation time of the shift W08 on the level of 1.3 m³∙h^-1 chips.

Because of generally small log piles, loading forwarders during thinning is time consuming. The Assortment Grapple, an innovative grapple with an extra pair of claws which facilitates the handling of two assortments during one loading crane cycle, has been designed to decrease forwarders' loading time consumption. A standardized experiment was performed in a virtual thinning stand using a machine simulator with the objectives to form guidelines for working with the Assortment Grapple and to analyse its development potential. Four experienced operators participated in the study. According to the results, the Assortment Grapple's accumulating function is beneficial only when there are no remaining trees between piles loaded during the same crane cycle. In such cases, none of participating operators lost time, and 3 of 4 operators saved time notably. The problem with the remaining trees is the extra time required to steer the crane tip around them. Therefore, a harvester should place those log piles that are later to be forwarded together in the same space with no remaining trees between the piles. Furthermore, we recommend that the Assortment Grapple's usability will be improved by adding an own rocker switch on the forwarder's controls to command the extra claws.

Five types of stand stages (clearings-samplings, plantations, thinnings, thickets, and mature forests) of spruce forests were examined at the foothills of the Jizerské hory Mts. in summer 2005 and 2006. The presence of ants was surveyed by catching them into pitfall traps and observing on baits. Higher numbers of Formica fusca ants were found in clearings-samplings and in plantations. Their activity was higher at the soil and air temperature of 20-30°C. The peak of activity was observed in July. Most specimens were trapped at lighter habitats and in the sites with more than 50% herbaceous and gramineous vegetation cover. F. pratensis was trapped in plantations and thickets. It was active at the soil temperatures 12-21°C and air temperatures 16-25°C. It occurred both in dark and light areas. F. sanguinea most commonly occurred in thinnings. This species was the most active at the soil temperature 20-30°C. Its activity depending on air temperature grew almost linearly. It occurred both in dark and in light stand stages with at least 60% vegetation cover. F. truncorum was observed only in thinnings. The activity of F. truncorum was the highest at the air and soil temperatures 15-25°C. The peak of activity was recorded in July. It was observed only in stands with the quantity of incident radiation 1,030 lx and with 20-80% of undergrowth cover.

The aim of the study was to determine the adaptive characteristics of pine needles associated with age and different growing conditions. The length of the needles decreases and its variability reduces with increasing dryness and poverty of the soil. In oppressed trees, the coefficient of variability of the length of the needles on the tree is 8%. The coefficient of variation in the length of needles approaching 20% will indicate the best conditions for the growth of a particular tree. Trends of the dependence of width and thickness of needles on growing conditions were not identified. The area of needles in pine forests with optimal water regime of soils (blueberry, cowberry type) varies in the range of 112-124 mm². In extreme growing conditions pine needles area is reduced by 27-33% and equals 76-86 mm². These ranges of values of the areas of needles are typical for plantings of the third and fourth classes of age. Changing the width and thickness of the needles is aimed at compensating for changes in the length of the needles in the direction of maintaining the optimal area for these conditions needles. In extreme conditions, the area of the assimilating tissue increases, and the area of the conducting tissue (stele) decreases. Correlation dependences of the area of the stele of needles with the cross-sectional area, with the area of conducting beams, with the number of resin canals and with the cover fabric are revealed.

Sweet chestnut Castanea sativa Mill. is an introduced species in the Czech Republic. It is recorded roughly from 300 localities. To the end of 2002, the occurrence of chestnut was verified at about 140 macrolocalities. The most northern locality recorded so far was Choustníkovo Hradiště in the region of Hradec Králové. Chestnuts occur generally to an altitude of 500 m (80% of all examined localities), at higher altitudes they suffer from climatic extremes particularly late frosts. The occurrence of chestnut was recorded at 27 localities (ca. 20% localities under investigation) where altitudes exceed 500 m. The highest location of chestnut is locality Nejdek, Karlovy Vary District where chestnut trees thrive at an altitude of 678 m. At altitudes over 600 m, two other localities were recorded. The health condition of chestnut is relatively good. At some localities, however, crown drying occurs as a result of not quite ideal climatic conditions. Within our research, quarantine Cryphonectria parasitica (Murr.) Barr. was determined for the first time in the Czech Republic at the only examined locality.